GB: Victorian Period

1. Political history
In the 19th century, Parliament was still very much dominated by landowning aristocracy. British parliamentary institutions continued to survive in part because England had already experienced political revolution in 1688 : the foundations of future government democracy had already been laid, and the powers of the monarchy had been reduced considerably.
Apart from a brief interlude in 1802-03, England remained at war with France from 1793 to 1815. Although the First Reform Bill (1832) extended the franchise (the right to vote) to some members to middle classes – for example, large scale employers such factory owners – and, at the expense of corrupt and easily purchasable rotten boroughs, provided towns like Birmingham with some form of parliamentary representation, it effectively changed very little. Other important reforms passed in this period included : 1833 – Factory Acts : children under the age 9 were forbidden from working, and investigations into the working conditions of women and children were instigated, the end of slavery in British colonies, a new, and later much despised, Poor law providing workhouses for the homeless was passed in 1834.
The reign of Queen Victoria (1837 – 1901) was the climax of Britain?s imperial ambitions and is unique in its solidity of purpose and outlook. The population explosion, which took the population of Britain from 10,5 million in 1801 to about 37 million in 1901, was an extremely important factor in shaping social and political life during the nineteenth century. The Poor Law had set up the feared and hated ?workhouses? where the poor were confined, in conditions which were little better than the starvation and misery they had suffered outside : they were fed on of subsistence diet, made to work extremely long hours and divided from their families. In this period there was growing consensus among both Tories and Whigs that free trade and social and political reform were necessary in order to stimulate expansion : these ideas were known as Liberalism. By 1865 a more rigid two party system Conservative (ex – Tory) and Liberal (ex – Whigs) developed. Many features of modern British Parliamentary democracy first emerged in this period : further Reform Bills in 1867 and 1884 meant that by the end of century 60% of the urban male population and 70% of the rural male population had to vote. Public opinion became very important and new popular newspapers grew up to satisfy this new. The rise of CO-operate movement and of Trade Unions which attempted to achieve reform through Parliament, led to increasing self-confidence of the working class, despite a bargaining position which was far from strong. The Independent Labour Party was founded in 1892. During this period, Britain once more began to fight colonial wars. The excuse of bringing civilization to the Africans enabled Britain to seize large areas of the continent, as did other European countries. The Boer wars in the South Africa at the end of the century, and Britain?s invasion of Egypt and Sudan in the 1880s, were other instances of Britain?s not always pristine motives and confusing contradiction between liberal ideas at home and brutal expansion abroad.

2. Social history
During the Victorian Age, political stability let to great expansion and prosperity. Britain was rich in raw materials, with more than enough of its own industrial system. The rise in the production of heavy industrial goods-ships, steam engines. The Victorian family has become something of synonym for a strict and repressive upbringing. Married women were simply part of their husband?s property for nearly the whole of the century. The publication of Darwin?s ?The Origin of Species? in 1857 led to great controversy, since until the time most people had taken the description o the creation in the Bible at face value and could not accept Darwin?s scientific explanation of evolution. Education was made compulsory for all children up to the age of 13. At school they learnt reading, writing and arithmetic. Towards the end of the century when towns became better places to live and work in.

Summary:
Queen Victoria
1819-1901 – During her reign there was a great industrial and colonial progress. Period of her reign is also known by snobbery and social aschetism.

Who were Tories and Whigs
These two main political parties were established during 17th century. Whigs are liberal and Tories are conservative.

Characterise liberalism
Liberalism is open to every new ideas and principles, it prefers: political freedom, toleration, private possession, reduce of political power. Liberalism was outlined by philosophers like B.Spinoza, J.Locke, I Kant, Motesquieu etc.

Colonies
Queen Victoria became an Emperor. England was controlling India, Barm and Egypt. During her reign there was a big rebellion in Canada, what was English colony. Canadians were demanding political freedom. Victoria suppressed the rebellion, but they reached self-government although she stayed as a head of country.

5B : The Past Continuous Tense

Form:
Positive and negative Questions
I + was + working What + was + she + doing ?
They + weren?t + working What + were + they + doing ?

Use:
-We often use the Past Continuous in sentences together with the Past Simple. When this happens, the Past Continuous refers to longer, ´background´ activities, whilst the Past Simple refers to a shorter actions that happened in the middle of the longer ones.
ex. When I woke up this morning the birds were singing and the sun was shining.

The Past Continuous is used :
1. to express an activity in progress before, and probably after, a particular time in the past.
Ex. I walked past your house last night. There was an awful noise. What were you doing ?
At 7 a.m. this morning I was having a breakfast.
2. to describe an situation or activity during the period in the past.
Ex. Jan looked lovely. She was wearing a green cotton dress. Her eyes were shining in the light of the candles
that were burning nearby.
3. to express an interrupted past activity
Ex. When the phone rang, I was having a bath.
We were playing tennis when it started to rain.
4. to express an incomplete activity in the past in order to contrast with the Past Simple which expresses a completed activity.
Ex. I was reading a book during the flight. (I didn?t finished it).
I watched TV during the flight. (the whole film).
5. The Past Simple is usually used to express a repeated past habit or situation.
Ex. I went out with Jack for years.
But the Past Continuous can be used if the repeated habit becomes a longer ?setting? for something.
Ex. I was going out with Jack when I first met Harry.

The Past Simple versus Past Continuous
1. The Past Simple expresses past actions as simple facts. The Past Continuous gives past activities time and duration.
2. The questions refer to different time periods : the Past Continuous asks about activities before ; the Past Simple asks about what happened after.
When the war broke out, Peter was studying medicine at university. He decided that it was safer to go home to
his parents and postpone his studies.
When was Peter doing when the war broke out?
What did Peter do when the war broke out?